operations or national defense, against the “risks” (radiation exposure). Obviously, this is an exceedingly complex and, in part, subjective process. In spite of these difficulties this balancing of benefits from APPENDIX normal peacetime operations against risks has been performed SAFETY PROCEDURES AT THE NUCLEAR TESTING SITES by the Federal Radiation Council (FRC) resulting in their recommending radiation protection guides for this purpose.'* % In a letter of August 17, 1962 to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, the FRC clarified further their published Guides: “,.the Guides were originally developed for application as guidelines for the protection of radiation workers and the general public against exposures which might result during ‘normal peacetime opera- tions’ in connection with the industrial use of ionizing radiation ... the term ‘normal peacetime operations’ referred specifically to the peaceful applications of nuclear technology where the primary control is placed on the design and use of the source. Since numerical values in the Guides were designed for the regulation of a continuing industry, they were of necessity set so low that the upper limit of Range II can be consideredto fall well within levels of exposure acceptable for a lifetime. Furthermore, to provide the maximum margin of safety, the upper limits of Range II were related to the lowest possible level at which it was believed that nuclear industrial technology could be developed .. .” NEVADA TEST SITE General The safety programs and procedures described below were in use during atmospheric tests at the Nevada Test Site. Since the signing of the Limited Test Ban Treaty essentially all of these programs remain in effect, but generally at a reduced level, thus providing for a continuous monitoring of persons and the environment for documentary purposes, and assurance of a nucleus of well trained personnel (fig. 9). The health and safety of persons was the major consideration in the original selection of the Nevada Test Site and this continues to be of paramount importance during the conduct of nuclear tests. An exhaustive search was made before the Nevada site was selected as the most suitable one. It originally contained 600 square miles (later expanded to about 1,290 square miles) adjacent to the U.S. Air Force Gunnery Range of 4,000 square miles. For purposes of general safety, as well as security, the Test Site was and continues to be closed Guides developed primarily for use by industry in restricting its releases of radioactive effluents to the general environment to the public. lower than those that might constitute a serious health hazard. A fourth reason why concern has been expressed about to determine that no one had wanderedinto the area. Beyond these controlled areas are wide expansesof sparsely ships, i.e., the identifying or associating of nuclear tests with nuclear war. There may have been established in the minds of of safety. Although the area is quite sparsely populated the individual resident has been given full consideration. Radia- outside their controlled areas are, of course, very materially Health risks from fallout may lie in\the area of causal relation- some that nuclear weapons testing and nuclear war go hand-inhand, i.e., the first axiomatically leads to the second. A dis- cussion of causal relationships is beyond the scope of this booklet, yet one point must be made. As a matter of technical fact, nuclear weapons of proven performance would not have been possible without the testing of nuclear devices and the verifying of nuclear concepts that were incorporated into their design. Whatever protection we enjoy from our nuclear arsenal results from a stockpile of testproven nuclear weapons, not a stockpile of drawing board sketches. | 32 Safety of personnel was andis further assured by aerial and surface surveys made prior to each detonation populated land, providing optimim conditions for maintenance tion monitors have been present during times of testing and there have been occasions when residents have been relocated for a dayor so to insurefully their safety. Persons relocated have received financial remuneration for such movements. There have also been oceasions when persons have been asked to remain indoors for a few hours to reduce the radiation dose, although the out-of-door exposure would have been far from hazardous. Before each and every nuclear detonation at the Nevada Test Site, an Advisory Panel of experts weighed carefully all of the factors that insured safety. On the panel were repre- 33