between the law and the evidence on which it rests similar in the two cases, or are statistical laws to be established according to different principles, in particular perhaps according to a different interpretation of the concept of probability? (iii) does the explanation provided by statistical laws follow the pattern set by (ideal) universal laws, and make a similar contribution to our understanding of the world, or does it need to be regarded in quite a different (possibly more modest and pragmatic) light? Arnold Koslow, Wesley Salmon. Isaac Levi, Richard C. Jeffrey, and Comparative Methodology of the Physical and Social Sciences (27 Dec.) One of the goals of general systems theory has been to identify common patterns in the structures and methods of different sciences. An obvious respect in which the physical and social sciences have resorted to common methods is in their use of statistical techniques. But it is not so obvious whether this represents more than a superficial similarity. Some of the questions which need to be Statistical Explanation in the Social Sciences (30 Dec.) The social sciences, dealing as they do with populations whose members are individuals of a very high degree of complexity, must embody their results almost without ex- ception in statistical laws, so that (unlike the physi- cal sciences) their paradigm of explanation is statistical. They have in consequence been the source of numerous methodological innovations, some of which have acquired the status of theories in their own right (game theory, communication theory, etc.). Also scientific explanation itself is a phenomenonproperly dealt with by the social sciences, to an analysis of which information theory, for example, is particularly relevant. Under the title of the symposium, therefore, two problems can be distinguished: (i) what forms do explanations in the social sciences in fact take (since they are virtually all statistical)? (ii) what light do the techniques of the social sciences throw on the nature of statistical explanation in whatever scientific context? Stephen Spielman, Joseph Hanna, Roger Rosenkrantz, and Paul Diesing. (or in any other) respect the physical and social sciences The Role of Systems Analysis in the Educational System of the Seventies (26 Dec.) fact that in thermodynamics and particle physics the individual events covered by statistical laws cannot in general This session will feature the role of systems analysis in meeting educational challenges posed by the emerging tech- tions the corresponding events in general can be, constitutes a radical difference between the two cases, and (iii) whether, and if so in what particular ways, statistical (or any other) simplify, vitalize, and promote the systems approach to education. Emphasis will be placed on efforts to develop, utilize and finance curricula for all age groups in the educational the different sciences (whether for example levels of sig- mental agencies. raised and answered, therefore, include (i) whether in this exhibit a genuine methodological unity, (ii) whether the be observed individually, while in most social science situa- techniques require special adaptation in the contexts of nificance taken as establishing causal relations in the social sciences might be considered inadequate for the same purpose in the physical sciences). Richard Sacksteder. Rudner, Sidney Morgenbesser, and William Statistical Explanation in Physics—the Copenhagen Interpretation (28 Dec.) The chief philosophical puzzle posed by microphysics continues to be the theoretical status of the probabilistic or statistical measures which constitute its empirical foundation at the present time. The standard (“openhagen) approach to the problem interprets these as measures of classical or “neo-classical” variables (mass, time, length, charge, spin) invoking the correspondence principle to bridge the gap between classical and quantum conditions, and considers the foundation so provided to be fundamental in principle. Various attempts, for example those involving “hidden variables,” have been made to approach the problem in new ways, which would describe the physi- nological and informational trends. It will explore ways to programs of schools, colleges, business firms, and governJere W. Clark, Kenneth E. Boulding, Milton C. Marney, Bert J. Decker, and Carl E. Gregory. Ecology, Society, and the Future (26-27 Dec.) There are specific problems associated with human pressure on the natural environment. While each of these probJems lies within the field of competence of a particular expert, their recommendations for the solution of a spe- cific problem may conflict with the possibility of solving some other problems in the professional domain of other experts. In this sense, the simultaneous solutions to the spectrum of problems arising out of human po, dlation growth requires a systems approach in the richest mean- ing of the term. Lawrence B. Slobodkin, Ruth Patrick, Kenneth E. F. Watt, John Wolfe, Phillip Ritterbush, and George White. Comparative Administration and Management Systems (29 Dec.) cal state of affairs in non-classical terms. Apart from the difficult problem as to the nature of physical reality involved in this confrontation, it gives rise to an interesting Tecently, in the search for a “unified theory of management,” “systems theery” and “general systems theory” have sparked new hope that at least a language suitable to ex- phenomena (as distinct from underlying states) which can a new spirit of urgency is manifest. The toils of largescale organizations embrace modern man ever moretightly and confront him with increasingly difficult and vexing problems. Modern technology has supplied cybernetically question about statistical explanation, namely whether be described on/y in statistical terms can nevertheless be explained in non-statistical ones, or whether in principle they require statistical explanation. Albert E. Blumberg, Richard Schlegel, Arthur Komar, and Joseph Sneed. 1360 plore the possibility may have been found. At this time, oriented computerized management information systems for more effectively coping with the new problems. A SCIENCE, VOL. 158