the individual the courage for risky
undertakings. Certain drugs which influence mental disturbances are particularly interesting from the medical
point of view. The effect of stronger
doses of ethyl alcohol is revealing;
such doses lead to a dimming of consciousness, even to total loss of con-
sciousness. This observation indicates
an important sensitivity of consciousness to chemical influences (J7), which
is further revealed in the action of
anesthetics upon basic properties of
cerebral elements. Such modifications
show that chemically defined receptors,
as constituents of nerve cells, are in
play at the molecular level. Little is
known aboutthis field today; however,
Thus the actions of LSD may be considered a modification of discharge of
nervous elements of the visual system.
As
mentioned
above,
fragments
of
stored experience are often part of the
activated pattern of excitation. An example is one subject’s identification
of a wall with a railway embankment.
A hallucination was joined to this ilfusion; the subject believed that he saw
an overhead electric line, which in re-
ality was not there but which belonged
to the full picture of the electrified
Swiss train system. From this, it. appears that the mechanism of hallucination may eventually become understood through a biologically oriented
approach.
Causality and Motivation
of Behavior
the means for further investigation are
at hand—for example, through study
of the effect of drugs on explants of
clinical biopsy material.
In addition to drugs which suppress
consciousness there are drugs whose action manifests itself in the psychic
sphere in other ways. One of these,
The behavior of a cat in an open
field on the lookout for an enemy seems:
to be motivated by the imminent threat.
The cat’s watchfulness and active
search for a refuge confirm this interpretation. While emotions may be the
impelling force, the waking consciousness determines the organization of a
lysergic
flight reaction. For successful avoidance,
acid
diethylamide
(LSD),
is
an appropriate “research instrument.”
Even minimum doses produce very
striking psychic effects—for example,
primitive visual perceptions such as
colored clouds and changes in brightness of visual patterns, like scintillations or flickerings. One psychiatrist
(78) has described more complex visu-
coordinated muscular action is called
upon. Such action occurs through excitation of precisely defined central
mechanisms. To meit is clear that such
an explanation can be deduced only
from one’s own experience. From the
objective point of view one might take
exception to this interpretation. On the
ments, fern branchings, and wood carv-
expected to be guided in their view
by their specialized knowledge concerning the organization of brain and
behavior—knowledge which has led to
the recognition of principles applicable
in both man and other higher animals.
Such is the problem of motive and execution of acts controlled by the con-
al impressions, such as spirals, orna-
ings, which he experienced in a selftrial. Such imagery arises from latent
memory traces. Even more impressive
is the case where fragments of ac-
quired knowledge appear in the visual
field—for instance, images of benzene
rings or chromosomes. Experiences of
this nature are noteworthy because similar visual phenomena, such as stars,
wheels, colored balls, and disks, are
reported by the patient when the brain
surgeon applies electrical current to the
occipital cortex for purposes of diagnosis (4). Artificially elicited perception
of the contents of consciousness, on
the one hand through electrical stimulation and on the other hand through
the administration of a chemically defined substance, is all the more arresting because this activity is based on
excitation of elements that lie in the
visual-projection areas of the brain.
1282
other hand, scientific observers can be
scious will. Therefore, the question is,
Where do the activating impulses originate?
One may say that this category of
phenomena cannot be compared with
the category discussed above. On the
other hand, no one can deny that the
display of behavior presupposes the action of forces, for, without them, noth-
ing would be set in motion and there
would be no resistance to be overcome. Voluntary acts are no exception. What is difficult is to determine
the type of activating force. As the
matter stands, one can only argue by
exclusion. Certainly, conditions required for the release of nuclear forces
are not present; gravitational forces also
are excluded, for today it has been -
shown that psychic processes take place
normally under conditions of weightlessness. The activating forces could
be molecular or electromagnetic. Possibly, as yet undiscovered forces may
be active which belong to none of the
known categories, forces inherent in the
living neuronal system of man and other
higher animals. Such a concept may
mean, to be sure, a revival of the long-
departed vitalistic theory. This suggestion is not so absurd, since the experiments which seem to have ruled out
vitalistic processes have concerned only
somatic or organic functions. However,
psychic functions are a reality for the
living individual even though they cannot be objectified by outsiders.
Causality and Communication
The substitution of verbal symbols
for perceptions of reality plays an important role in causal thinking. An
example of such substitution is the reporting of a conference, with mention
of the names of the participants. To
this conference report only a few details need be added to convey meaningful information concerning the course
of the transactions and the conclusions
reached.
Acoustical and optical symbols are
also used, moreover, and not only for
communication between man and man.
A dog reacts to the call of its name
as a consequence of its education. It
looks about, comes to its master, and
responds whenasked, through word and
sign, to perform tricks it has learned.
In the human, basically complex information can be reduced to symbols
of fixed, brief design which denote,
nevertheless, wide-reaching conclusions.
The highest development is found in
the symbols of mathematics. Here, data
can be expressed through ciphers and
other signs which denote qualitative as
well as quantitative aspects, and new
insights can be developed.
Sense stimulations which are integrated into a pattern of neural excitation are transferred automatically to
the environment by the receiving and
perceiving subject. This transfer corresponds to the long-known rule of
excentric projection. The consequence
of this is that no clue concerning Josalization and organization of the ‘nervSCTIESCE, VOL. 158
»
sion of inhibition. For this reason the
ventures of the inebriate lead all too
often to catastrophe. Another group of
substances, the amphetamine compounds, also increase initiative and give