3
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canned goods or any materials in
impervious, Custproof wrappings.
There appears to be no feasible
means of saivaging unprotected
In
surface
waters,
whereverpossible, of surfaces that
either are resistant to such contamination or from which the
active material can be readily
removed.
It has been found, for example,
that surfaces coated with certain
plastic paints are relatively easily
decontaminated.
At the present
time it appears that well-main-
radioactive
contaminants will tend to be adsorbed by the suspended and colloidal matter that invariably is pres-
ent. In urban water systems, radioactive material that has escaped
adsorption in a reservoir itself may
tained paint or other sealer is the
be picked up by the surface of the
distribution system.
When, in addition, the purifica-
only means of protecting structural material, such as concrete,
brick
water
ones.
vented.
tection.
;
and
replaced
with
new
the bomb is used. In a high air
burst, such as at Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, most of the casualties
natural decay of radioactivity, the
degree of contamination will decrease with time.
In some cities water is taken
directly from a river and merely
will be from burns and blast
effects.
There will be a smal] proportion
of radiation injuries resulting from
chlorinated before being supplied
for domestic consumption. If no
exposure to the initial nuclear radiations, emitted within the first
minute after the burst, but the
alternative source of wateris available in case of emergency, consideration should be given to the
provision of positive and negative
or
ex-
Personal Injuries Vary
filtration, the water might be unfit
for consumption for several days.
However, because of dilution and
columns
underwater
The types of injuries suffered by
personnel in an atomic explosion
will vary with the manner in which
is not subjected to coagulation or
exchange
an
kept under cover by means of
tarpaulins or other movable pro-
If a reservoir or river is seriously contaminated, and the water
ion
against
Where these procedures are not
possible, vital equipment may be
ground, provided surface drainage
or contaminated material is pre-
;
where
moved
are generally safe from contamination. So are moderately deep
wells, even under contaminated
;
woods,
plosion is possible.
Another possibility is to use
coatings that can be easily re-
water
of
soft
in new construction near bodies of
Welis and Reservoirs
sources
and
radioactive contamination.
This
should be borne in mind especially
tion process includes coagulation,
sedimentation and filtration stages,
it is expected that very little radioactive material would normally
reach the consumer.
Underground
J
The ideal defense against radioactive contamination is the use,
food, either in the home, the store,
or in the fields.
_?
wy
effect
of contamination
residual
radiations,
by
the
emitted after
the first minute, will be negligible.
beds
(purifying agencies) to be used
if the regular supply should be-
at
come contaminated.
Home water softeners might
serve the same purpose. In hospi-
An explosion at low altitude or
ground
level
would
produce
somewhat fewer casualties from
blast or burns, but a small area
would be highly contaminated with
tals and on ships sufficient water
for emergency purposes could be
obtained by distillation.
It was
found at Bikini, for example, that
radioactive material.
If proper
precautions are taken, the casua!-
ities from this residual radiation
should be a very small fraction of
the total.
contaminated water, when distilled,
was perfectly safe for drinking.
It should be emphasized, how-
After a shallow underwater burst,
the number of casualties from
blast and burns also will be dimin-
ever, that mere boiling of water
contaminated with radioactivity is
of no value.
ished.
However, some casualties
might arise from exposure to ra38
sis and treatment, it is not neces-
diation from fission products and,
to a lesser extent, material that
has escaped fission, spread over
sary to distinguish among burns
caused by thermal radiation (flashburns), by flame, or by contact
an appreciable area by the base-
burns, a form of flash-burn caused
surge and the fall-out.
by dark-clothing materials becom-
During the first two months or
more the primary danger would be
from the gamma rays, in partic-
ing hot and burning the skin with
which they are in contact.
Although there are differences
in body surface involved, depth of
ular, and the beta particles (electrons) from fission products. Subsequently, the ingestion of plutonium might in exceptional circum-
the injury to the skin, and general
reactions of the individual to burns
of different types, the indicated
treatment for burns from an atomic explosion appears to be the
stances become a hazard. In the
event of serious contamination of
this kind, it would be necessary
to evacuate the population from
the affected areas until they could
same as for those encountered in
large-scale incendiary raids and in
civil disasters.
be adequately decontaminated.
Injuries by blast are of two
kinds, direct and indirect. Direct
blast injuries result from the positive pressure phase of the shock
Sudden Casualties
The unique feature
wave acting on the body to cause
injury of the lungs, stomach, intes-
tines and eardrums, and internal
hemorrhage.
Such
injuries
of
atomic
bomb burns is the great number of
casualties
produced
in
a_
brief
period, the variety of burns encountered, and the wide range of
oc-
severity, depending on the distance
curred in World War I after largeseale air raids with conventional
high explosive bombs.
At Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
however, the direct blast effect was
from the explosion.
A great deal was learned during
World War II about the treatment
of burns, but the subject is still
under investigation and has not
not a significant primary cause of
fatality, because those near enough
yet becomestabilized. It is recom-
to the explosion to suffer injury in
mended, therefore, that until there
this
manner
were
burned
or
crushed to death.
A pressure of
is more general agreement, the
medical men in each community
about thirty-five pounds per square
employ the treatment for severe
inch or more is required to cause
direct harm to a human being, The
peak pressure of the shock wave
from a nominal atomic bomb would
burns they have found most effi-
cacious,
Because of their importance in
relation to the effects of an atomic
explosion, a comprehensive study
attain such values only at distances
of 1,000 feet or tess from ground
zero, assuming a height of burst
of flash burns is being sponsored
by the Atomic Energy Commission.
at 2,000 feet.
The effect of thermal radiation
More important than the primary blast injuries in the Japanese
bombings were the indirect or sec-
on the eyes was surprisingly small.
Even those who looked directly at
other debris flying about in the
blast wave. Persons were injured
Nagasaki, from some distance, of
course, reported only temporary
loss of vision. One patient was so
the explosions at Hiroshima and
ondary effects from collapsing
buildings, and from timber and
by
flying
objects,
crushed
blinded by the flash that he was
unable to distinguish light from
dark for two days, but eventually
or
buried under buildings, and thrown
against fixed structures.
Glass
fragments penetrated up to an inch
his recovery was complete.
The effects of nuclear radiations,
as distinguished from thermal, on
living organisms depend not only
on the total amount absorbed, but
also on the rate of absorption: on
whether it is chronic or acute, and
beneath the skin, and the light
summer clothing worn at the time
offered little protection.
Unless
proper precautions are taken, to be
described later, giass is a considerable hazard.
For practica! purposes of diagno-
on the area of the body exposed.
39g